Iacobus Arminius by Skara Kommun; CC BY 2.0 Jacobus Arminius Several years after Calvin died in 1564, Jacobus Arminius went to Geneva in order to study under Theodore Beza, the man who took over . Arminius, also known as Armin or Hermann (b. Segestes and his family were escorted to the safety of the Roman forts on the Rhine. Chr. In 9 CE Arminius lured Varus into an ambush in the Teutoburg Forest. Recent archaeological finds show the long-debated location of the three-day battle was almost certainly near Kalkriese Hill, about 20 kilometres (12mi) north of present-day Osnabrck. Challenger of Rome - not in its infancy, like kings and commanders before him, but at the height of its power - he had fought undecided battles, and never lost a war To this day, the tribes sing of him. Arminius aspired to be king but many tribal factions resented his authority. But the differences between Calvinists and Arminians are important precisely for the work that all want to do for Christ. [29] Her father was the Cheruscan prince Segestes, who was pro-Roman. On closeexamination such a claim proves to be false. Her father had intended her for someone else, but Arminius had abducted and impregnated her. An irate Augustus shouted, "Quinctilius Varus, give me back my legions" (Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, II. Still seeking to win legal tolerance for his views, he accepted an invitation of the State General to a "friendly conference" with Gomarus [9] but his health caused the conference to end prematurely. In 16 AD, a second eagle was retrieved. Varus' army took the route along the Lippe River and from there north to the western regions of the Weser Hills. 7:22). Seeking vengeance, Germanicus advanced east toward the Cherusci. By the early 1570s civil war had begun in earnest against Spain. If they mean that literally, then they are100% Arminian since giving any determinative place to human will is Arminian. Fleeing into the marsh, all but a handful of were hunted down. The vastly outnumbered Roman garrison of Aliso (present-day Haltern am See), under the command of the prefect Lucius Cedicius, inflicted heavy losses on the Germans before retreating into Gaul, resisting long enough for Lucius Nonius Asprenas to organize the Roman defense on the Rhine and Tiberius to arrive with a new army. Betrayed by his relatives, Arminius was killed in 19 CE. The Synod met about a decade after the death of James Arminius (October 19, 1609) whose objections to the theological documents of the Dutch Reformed church led to its calling. There is no way to "transcend" this reality. It is certainly true that the theological differences between Calvinists and Arminians should not be overemphasized. Barbarians Plot Synopsis. This proved a difficult task, as the tribes were strongly independent and many were traditionally enemies of each other. In 1838, construction was started on a massive statue of Arminius, known as the Hermannsdenkmal, on a hill near Detmold in the Teutoburg Forest; it was finally completed and dedicated during the early years of the Second German Empire in the wake of the German victory over France in the Franco-Prussian War of 18701871. Arminius was a German tribal chief during the early part of the 1st Century CE, and is best known for being a total badass and giving the Roman Empire the beating of their lives. Heinrich von Kleist: Die Herrmannsschlacht. Enslaved Romans were not considered to be citizens, so in the Spartacan battles, when the Roman citizens lost, the Spartacan victors are bolded. "Arminius." Varus and his legions marched right into the trap that Arminius had set for them near Kalkriese. However, the way ahead seemed far shorter than backtracking to the Lippe. He was a talented student and like many students of his day continued his education at other schools. Arminius made skillful use of local terrain to defeat what was a superior trained and equipped enemy. He persuaded Varus to divert the three legions under his command (composed of the 17th, 18th, and 19th legions, plus three cavalry detachments and six cohorts of auxiliaries), which were at the time marching to winter quarters, to suppress the rebellion. Either our father is the Father of lights, or the false accuser, the father of lies. Arminius (18/17 BC - AD 21), also known as Armin or Hermann ( Arminius being a Latinization, similar to Brennus ), was a chieftain of the Germanic Cherusci who defeated a Roman army in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Behind them, along the 12-20 mile (18-30 km) passage of the Roman column, lay thousands of their dead. Indeed Arminianism today usually goes much further in emphasizing free will than Arminius did or would ever have approved of doing. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. With the approach of fall, the Roman army prepared to march back to their winter quarters on the Rhine. The defensive victory allowed Caecina to safely reach the Rhine. Arminius was crushed by this, but didn't let it break his resolve. Finally in1618, after a change of leadership in the government, a national synod was held at Dordrecht -the Synod of Dort - to judge the Arminian theology. Holland was one of seventeen prosperous provinces then known as the Netherlands or the Low Countries, which today are divided into the Netherlands, Belgium and part of northern France. After serving with distinction in the Great Illyrian Revolt, he was sent to Germania to aid the local governor Publius Quinctilius Varus in completing the Roman conquest of the Germanic tribes. Arminius took on a professorship at the university of Leiden where he had schooled previously and would remain there from 1603 until October 19th 1609 when he died (EB, 2020). Arminius now had no rival in Germania. Roman casualties were severe, the legionaries and auxiliaries were worn out and their supplies were in all likelihood nearly exhausted. Second, God decreed absolutely to save "those who repent and believe in Christ, and for His sake and through Him, to effect salvation of such penitents and believers as persevered to the end." [10] Following World War II, however, Arminius' significance was reduced in Germany due to his association with militaristic nationalism; the 2,000th anniversary of his victory at the Teutoburg Forest was only lightly commemorated in Germany. Armies on the Rhine could be supplied from the Mediterranean Sea via the Rhne, Sane, and Mosel, with only a brief area of portage. In its emphasis on the grace of God, Arminianism influenced the development of Methodism in England and the United States. Indeed, Calvinism has never been summarized in five points. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike. At first, it seemed that the survivors eluded any pursuer, but then the path ahead narrowed with the marsh on one side and an earth embankment on the other. The decade of the 1560s saw dramatic developments in the Netherlands. Although the Cherusci had received federated status within the Roman Empire, to Arminius it was clear that his people were not treated as equals. It is as unclear as the reason that Beza recommended him, or that his orthodox colleagues in Amsterdam got along with him as well as they did. An enraged Flavus had to be physically restrained from plunging his steed into the water to fight his brother. His first book is the "The Roman Barbarian Wars.". In October of 1575 Arminius entered the newly founded University of Leiden. [16][17] These experiences gave him knowledge of Roman politics and military tactics, which allowed him to successfully anticipate enemy battle maneuvers during his later campaigns against the Roman army. [47], In 1808, Heinrich von Kleist wrote the play Die Hermannsschlacht,[48] but with Napoleon's victory at Wagram it remained in manuscript, being published in 1821 and not staged until 1860. Corrections? According to Tacitus, "the title of king rendered Maroboduus hated among his countrymen, while Arminius was regarded with favor as the champion of freedom" (Tacitus, Annals, II. Fourth, God decreed "to save and damn particular persons" based on the foreknow ledge of God, by which He knew from all eternity those individuals who would, through his preventing [i.e., prevenient] grace, believe, and through his subsequent grace would persevere.". [21] The battle was one of the most devastating defeats Rome suffered in its history. The 'Long Bridges' led through swampy ground, perfect for ambushes, which Arminius was quick to exploit. In the early 19th century, attempts were made to show that the story of Arminius and his victory may have lived on in the Old Norse sagas,[41] in the form of the dragon slayer Sigurd of the Vlsunga saga and the Nibelungenlied. Rather, he simply argues that Romans 9 does not support that doctrine, as Arminius says at the end of the analysis, "And thus I think I have shown that this passage of the Apostle does not serve to confirm that opinion which many suppose to rest on the foundation of this . His powerful uncle Inguiomerus finally joined the war against Rome. Arminius held Christ died for all (although not all would be saved). In the late 1540s Calvinism emerged as an attractive, popular religion in the Netherlands, especially in the southern provinces. For other uses, see, Roman retaliation, inter-tribal conflicts, and death, Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History II, 120, 4; Cassius Dio, Roman History LVI, 22, 2a-2b, O. Hfler, "Siegfried Arminius und die Symbolik,". Arminius is best known theologically for his rejection of the Calvinist doctrine of predestination. Jacob Arminius was a 16th century Dutch theologian who originally was a student of John Calvin before changing his beliefs. [10] In Germany, the name Arminius was interpreted as reflecting the name Hermann by Martin Luther, who saw Arminius as a symbol of the German people and their fight against Rome. where to buy czech dumplings; how many liters is a nike backpack? Arminius was a chief of the Cherusci. Controversy raged in the Netherlands over Arminianism, even threatening civil war. The two forces clashed on the plain in a fierce battle. After brief stays at the University of Padua, in Rome, and in Geneva, Arminius went to Amsterdam. He served in the Roman army between AD 1 and 6 and received a . Arminius called across the water, taunting Flavus as to what Rome had given him for his disfigurement. There the difficult terrain favored Arminius' lighter-armed, quick and nimble Germanic warriors. The battle led to the liberation of Germany from the Roman Empire and was the beginning of a long, drawn-out war between the . The monument has been a major tourist attraction ever since, as has the Hermann Heights Monument, a similar statue erected in New Ulm, Minnesota, in the United States in 1897. In 16 CE Germanicus decided to alleviate his supply problems by embarking his entire army on a gigantic fleet of 1,000 ships. He understood both the limitations and advantages of his own men and of his enemy. On close examination those efforts to transcend Calvinism are at best other forms of Arminianism. Arminius suggested that instead of taking the usual route to the Rhine via the Lippe Varus should take a different route north of the Weser Hills. Arminius met the chieftains in a secret glade to plot the Romans' demise. In the face of so much religious shallowness, the profundity of Calvinism is needed. Ultimately, however, they were defeated and forced to sign a peace agreement with the aggressors. Our latest articles delivered to your inbox, once a week: Our mission is to engage people with cultural heritage and to improve history education worldwide. This elopement was likely a result of a dispute between Arminius and Segestes who was against their relationship. After Thusnelda's younger brother, Ansgar, is nearly killed by the Romans, the two enlist in Hanno and Eigil's help to invade the Romans' camp and steal their eagle, which ultimately results in . The Rhine was significantly more accessible from Rome and better equipped to supply sizable garrisons than the regions beyond.[38]. Tacitus describes him as having an unusual story, which he promises to tell in his later writings, but these writings have never been found. German tribes marched through the Teutoburg Forest, destroying three Roman legions; and the Roman commander Quintilius Varus was killed. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. But by the time Arminius died, the theological landscape was shifting again, and Arminius's anti-Calvinist . By contrast, Arminius taught that Paul is remembering his previous, unregenerate state. In 1575 his mother and other members of his family died at the hands of Spanish troops in a massacre at Oudewater. Arminius was likely in the thick of it, personally leading the most critical attacks, as well as taking time to co-ordinate the deployment of the various tribal forces along the Roman route. Man's contribution, however sincerely Arminius tried to limit it, became central for salvation. Two months later, on October 19, 1609, Jacobus Arminius died. Usually they mean that they want to stress the grace of God and human responsibility. Jacobus Arminius was born in 1559, only five years before the death of John Calvin, at Oudewater, Utrecht. Hence, Arminius came to assert a conditional election, according to which God elects to eternal life those who will respond in faith to the divine offer of salvation. It is helpful because in a world that is often foolishly optimistic and man-centered, Calvinism teaches theseriousness of sin and the glories of the redemptive work of Christ for sinners. [33][34] Tacitus states in the Annals: Arminius, with his naturally furious temper, was driven to frenzy by the seizure of his wife and the foredooming to slavery of his wife's unborn child. Many argue that the differences between Calvinists and Arminians no longer matter. Not all the Germanic chiefs were ready to give up the privileges they received from Rome. Most followed Calvin's conviction that the church must have a measure of independence from the state, especially in matters of church discipline. Please support World History Encyclopedia. There would be no resumption of the war in 17 CE. Arminius lured the Roman cavalry into a deadly ambush in a swamp, but the legions came to the rescue in the nick of time. [9] The Roman historian Tacitus designated Arminius as the liberator of the Germanic tribes and commended him for having fought the Roman Empire to a standstill at the peak of its power. First published in Christian Renewal as Arminius in 1988, reprinted in Modern Reformation, May/June, 1992, Westminster Seminary California All rights reserved. In the aftermath of the battle, Arminius fought retaliatory invasions by the Roman general Germanicus in the battles of Pontes Longi, Idistaviso, and the Angrivarian Wall, and deposed a rival, the Marcomanni king Maroboduus. Jacobus Arminius (10 October 1560 - 19 October 1609), the Latinized name of Jakob Hermanszoon, was a Dutch theologian during the Protestant Reformation period whose views became the basis of Arminianism and the Dutch Remonstrant movement. 20 . Posted on the Rhine, Arminius served under the command of Governor Publius Q. Varus. The third Roman eagle was recovered in 41 AD by Publius Gabinius, under the emperor Claudius. On the death of Aemilius in 1575, Rudolf Snellius (Snel van Roijen; 15461613), a professor at Marburg and a native of Oudewater, became the patron for his further education at the universities of Leiden (157682), Basel, and Geneva (158286). People criticized the books he assigned students. Arminius struck at Caecina's column while it was repairing a causeway. Varus collected tribute and meted out Roman justice and law, and tribesmen came to trade at the huge Roman camp. He had earlier affirmed the Calvinist view of predestination, which held that those elected for salvation were so chosen prior to Adams Fall, but he gradually came to have doubts about this teaching. Mud and puddles, overflowing creeks, and fallen branches slowed down wheel, hoof, and foot. World History Foundation is a non-profit organization registered in Canada. In 1559 Guido de Bres wrote the first edition of the Belgic Confession, which clearly summarized the Calvinistic faith and set it off from Roman Catholicism and Anabaptism. Permissions: You are permitted to reproduce and distribute this material in any format provided that you do NOT alter the wording in any way and you do not charge a fee beyond the cost of reproduction. Arminius never lost his liberty, but he did eventually lose his life. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. Arminius addressed his victorious men and mocked the Romans. Arminius knew that the legions would not go down easily. Nevertheless, the Roman hero Germanicus continued to lead campaigns of retribution. The answers to those questions depend very much on whether man has free will or not. Barbarian casualties were heavy, scattered across the plain and into the forest beyond. 15). His wound still hampering him, Arminius was less active. The Roman fleet sailed to the sea, east along the Mare Germanicum (North Sea) coast and up the River Ems. With no satisfactory resolution to the matter, Arminius became ill and died in 1609, a minister in good standing in the Dutch Reformed Church. To defeat the legions, Arminius united the tribes & lured Varus' legions into the Teutoburg Forest where the difficult terrain favored the lighter-armed Germanic warriors. Arminius subsequently led a coalition of Germanic tribes that lured the Roman Legions of Publius Quinctilius Varus to near-annihilation at Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in AD 9. Rome chose no longer to rule directly in Germania east of the Rhine and north of the Danube, instead preferring to exert indirect influence by appointing client kings, which was cheaper than military campaigns. Are his views still important and influential? [46] Hermann der Cheruskerfrst became an emblem of the revival of German nationalism fueled by the Napoleonic Wars in the 19th century, such as in Caspar David Friedrich's 1812 painting The Tombs of the Old Heroes. Switzerland and Germany expressed great concern for the dangers posed by Arminian theology. However, in the absence of Arminius, Thusnelda was . Tacitus left a poignant tribute to Arminius: He was unmistakably the liberator of Germany. Armies on the Elbe, however, would had to have been supplied by extensive overland routes or by ships travelling the hazardous Atlantic. Arminius' success in destroying three entire legions and driving the Romans out of Germany marked a high point of Germanic power for centuries. 750-1050)-language text, Articles with unsourced statements from February 2021, Articles with unsourced statements from January 2021, Articles with unsourced statements from October 2020, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0. Both armies deployed and fought in Roman fashion, with units keeping to their standards, following orders, and keeping forces in reserve. Varus took the bait and marched his three legions, auxiliaries, and supporting staff into the Teutoburg Forest. Tribesmen were still arriving, more than making good his losses. Some downplay the differences between Arminians and Calvinists out of an activism that is rather indifferent to theology. [20], In the autumn of 9 AD, the 25-year-old Arminius brought to Varus a false report of rebellion in northern Germany. They argue that justas progress has been made in so many fields, so theological progress has transcended the old controversies. However, many tribesmen resented any authority and Arminius' ambitions to be their king. Arminius now held sway over much of Germania, his only rival was Maroboduus, King of the Marcomanni. The Synod of Dort had delegates not only from the Netherlands but also from five errors of Arminianism and expressed the Calvinist alternative to those errors: 1) God freely and sovereignly determined to save some lost sinners through the righteousness of Christ and to give to His elect the gift of faith; 2) God sent His Son to die as the substitute for His elect and Christ's death will certainly result in the salvation of His own; 3) Man is so utterly lost in sinthat without the regenerating grace of God, man cannot desire salvation, repent, believe or do anything truly pleasing to God; 4) God's grace saves the elect sinner irresistibly since only irresistible grace can overcome man's rebellion; 5) God in mercy preserves the gift of faith in His elect to ensure that the good work He began in them will certainly come to completion in their salvation. Perhaps Gomarus failed to ask the right questions, or Arminius was notcandid with his answers. Arminius meanwhile was faced with a belligerent Segestes, who redeclared himself for Rome. Another possibility is that Arminius's theology changed significantly after the interview, but it is difficult to speculate. Submitted by Ludwig Heinrich Dyck, published on 19 October 2016. Arminius and Segimer's goodwill was but a farce, meant to fool Varus until it was time to throw off the Roman yoke. Disaster struck on the sea voyage home, a storm wreaking havoc on both ships and troops. But in the Netherlands, the government had at times protected ministers who were targets of church discipline. . The other half of the army, commanded by Aulus Caecina Severus, returned via the old Roman land route known as the 'Long Bridges' first pioneered by Lucius D. Ahenobarbus 18 years ago. In light of the disaster in the Teutoburg, the Clades Variana, Augustus abandoned the conquest of Germania. Arminius had lost another battle but not the war. The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest was a military battle that took place in the year 9 AD.In the battle, an alliance of Germanic tribes won a major victory over three Roman legions.The Germanic tribes were led by Arminius; the Roman legions by Publius Quinctilius Varus.. His theology is best known for its counter-arguments against the theology of John Calvin. Shallow religion produces shallow Christian living. The answer to that question must be a resounding yes. Some argue that the differences between Calvinism and Arminianism are unimportant because the theological terms of the controversy were wrong or are now outmoded. Kalkriese Face MaskCarole Raddato (CC BY-SA). The legionaries had better armor, weapons, and discipline than the Germanic warriors, the vast bulk of which were farmers. Numerous educational institutions recommend us, including Oxford University. Thank you! 03 Mar 2023. For web posting, a link to this document on our website is preferred. The tribesmen took terrible vengeance on the captured Romans, torturing and sacrificing their victims while slavery awaited the remainder. It's surely ironic that throughthe centuries there has been so much talk of the "five points of Calvinism" when in fact Calvinists did not originate a discussion of five points. [35], Arminius' victory against the Roman legions in the Teutoburg Forest had a far-reaching effect on the subsequent history of both the ancient Germanic peoples and on the Roman Empire. Born c. 18 BCE, Arminius was the eldest son of the Cherusci chief Segimer. Related Content Gomarus was a strict Calvinist of undoubted orthodoxy. The weary Romans were able to entrench themselves for a night of much-needed rest. The battle ended in a resounding Roman victory. In 15 AD, Roman troops managed to recapture one of the three legionary eagles lost in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. At least the legions were able to find suitable ground for their marching camp. Arminius was driven off, and Germanicus returned to the Rhine where he reinforced his army with Batavian cavalry from the Rhine Island, led by their chief Chariovalda. It could claim support from Tacituss judgment of him as unquestionably the liberator of Germany (liberator haud dubie Germaniae); but it is clear that in Arminiuss day a united Germany was not even an ideal. Some Roman soldiers were captured alive by Arminius' force. He flew hither and thither among the Cherusci, demanding "war against Segestes, war against Csar." In the course of that investigation, Arminius wrote his "Declaration of Sentiments," probably the best summary of his beliefs. Germanicus put down the rebellion, having to pay the legions to stand down. If you prefer your fatherland, your ancestors, your ancient life to tyrants and to new colonies, follow as your leader Arminius to glory" (Tacitus, Annals, I.59). Seeing his countrymen oppressed by the Romans, Arminius became the leader of the rebels. Born. So they hadn't any problem to make an alliance with Romans if that alliance was able to grow the power of the clan or tribe . Outnumbered, Arminius fell back into the wilderness. In the accounts of his Roman enemies, Arminius is highly regarded for his military leadership and as a defender of the liberty of his people. At the Battle of Teutoburg Forest (aka Battle of Varus), c. 9 CE, a combined force of Germans annihilated a Roman army consisting of three legions including three squadrons of cavalry and six cohorts of auxiliary troops. Considered a man of mild temperament, Arminius was forced into controversy against his own choice. When did Jacob Arminius die? Out from beneath the great forest strode forth the tribal warriors. https://www.worldhistory.org/Arminius/. Thusnelda is an interesting figure as she wasn't powerful in any traditional sense of the word. The 8 bloodiest Roman emperors in history; A series of campaigns, first under Drusus and then his brother, the future Emperor Tiberius, saw the defeat of the Germanic tribes east of the Rhine and the extension of Roman influence across much of Germania Magna, as the Romans called the region. Arminius' face was smeared in blood as his horse broke through and carried him to safety. The next step would be to 'Romanise' these lands, and Augustus had just the man for the job . He is portrayed by David Schtter. And so, Ari became Arminius and was raised by Varus in the image of the . Jacobus Arminius (1560-1609) was a Dutch pastor and theologian. Cite This Work Arminius's influence held an allied coalition of Germanic . If that is what they mean, then they can be 100% Calvinist for Calvinism does teach both that God's grace is entirely the cause of salvation and that man is responsible before God to hear and heed the call to repentance and faith. This shift is important because again it shifts the primary focus of salvation from God's work in Christ to man's faith. The 2,000-year anniversary of the battle was also celebrated in New Ulm, Minnesota without restraint. Varus' task was to complete the conquest of Germania but his rough-handed . Arminius Hotel was created in 1904. The battle of the Teutoburg Forest was between Germans and the Roman army in 9BC. His victory at Teutoburg Forest would precipitate the Roman Empire's permanent . Arminius preached through the book of Romans, and some of his sermons did evoke opposition. Yes, Folkwin Wolfspeer is dead in the second season of 'Barbarians.'. Not to the Romans, but to his own people, who'd grown tired of his ceaseless efforts to subjugate the tribes and proclaim . His mother was slain during the Spanish massacre of . Before them, the ground sloped down towards the Idistaviso plain, skirted by a bend in the Weser River. The Romans made no further concerted efforts to conquer and permanently hold Germania beyond the Rhine and the Agri Decumates. Maroboduus also falsely claimed that it was Inguiomerus who had brought about Arminius' victories. After all, some argue, Arminius lived 400 years ago. With the elderly Augustus of failing health, Tiberius needed to ensure his own succession and so left behind his nephew Germanicus Julius Caesar to command the two armies guarding the Rhine frontier. Caecina was able to fight his way out and find dry ground to entrench himself for the night. [9], During the unification of Germany in the 19th century, Arminius was hailed by German nationalists as a symbol of German unity and freedom. "Battle of the Teutoburg Forest: Germany Recalls Myth That Created the Nation", " Vorname Hermann: Herkunft, Bedeutung & Namenstag", Encyclopdia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite, "New Ulm celebrates 2,000th anniversary of battle", "Arminius / Varus: Die Varusschlacht im Jahre 9 n. Philip II increasingly alienated the nobility and the people with his fiscal and religious policies. Numerous modern historians have regarded Arminius' victory as one of the most decisive battles in history,[4][5][6][7][8][17] with some calling it "Rome's greatest defeat".[3]. Germanicus started off in 14 CE by massacring Marsi villages and then fending off a dangerous tribal counterattack. Most of the years of Arminius's pastorate (1587-1603) in Amsterdam were peaceful. Alaric. It ended with Marbod fleeing to Ravenna and Roman protection, but Arminius failed to break into the "natural fortification" of Bohemia, and the war ended in stalemate. During the night, the barbarians stormed the Roman camp and tore the breastwork to pieces. "Arminius wasn't the liberator of Germania and it's simply wrong to call this the hour of the German nation's birth," Tillmann Bendikowski, a historian who has written a book about the battle and . Growing up in the midst of civil war in state and church, Arminius knew the bitterness of war. Calvinism has only offered five responses to the five errors ofArminianism. Those kinds of concerns will affect the ways in which Christian worship and witness and serve and live. Despite Philip's ardent Roman Catholicism and persecuting zeal, Reformation movements had been strong in the Low Countries for decades.

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